Female Migration towards Dhaka for Higher Education

Main objective of this thesis is to analysis Geographical Analysis of Internal Female Migration towards Dhaka for Higher Education. thesis find out that regional development of good facilities of higher education and job opportunities for women may reduce the migration flow and pressure on Dhaka city. This may also help in developing the respective regions and enhance the overall development of the nation. Here also evaluate the demographic characteristics and socio-economic status of female Students and their families.

Introduction

In Bangladesh Female Migration has been viewed as non-autonomous and non-economically motivated. Female migration for education purpose has been neglected in research field here. In every year a large number of female students from different districts migrate to Dhaka for higher education. Thus, the female enrolment in higher education has been increasing gradually, hi the light of the present perspective, A Geographical Analysis of Internal Female Migration towards Dhaka for Higher Education” is more logical. In this study, the primary step of internal female migration, the mobility pattern and activity space of female students who migrated to Dhaka for higher education has been examined.

The research work has been conducted on the residential female students of Dhaka University, BUET, DMC, and three University Colleges. Besides, 10 female students of Private Hostels also has been included in the sample population. The objectives taken to carry out this research work are to analysis the trend (l992-93 and 1996-97 session) and regional pattern of internal female migration, examine demographic characteristics and socio-economic status of female migrants and their families and to examine the mobility pattern and activity space of female student migration through generation. To carry out this research work, data has been collected from two sources by guard files of the hostels and by questionnaire survey of 173 residential students. Four Hundred & Seventy and 592 female students of 1992-93 and 1996-97 sessions were taken as sample population. It was found that 53.10% female students of urban origin as against 46.98% students of rural origin migrated to Dhaka for higher education. Out of this 1062 students, Dhaka Division sent most of the female students 491 followed by Khulna and Rajshahi Divisions with 177 and 150 female students. Out of 173 sample students, 131 female students were from higher middle and middle income families.

The mobility pattern of female migrants indicate that their average traveling distance from place of residence to school of same place was 1 K.M. Their average traveling distance to attend college was 2.5 K.M. The highest average distance travelled by the female students during their University life was 214.68 K.M. This is an indication of their increased activity space.

Among these migrant students, about 95% wanted some sort of job after completion of their degree and the highest percentage(50.92%) of these students wanted government job as their future profession. Their aspiration to take responsibilities in the society through participation in the economic activities has serious implication on future job market. In view of the up-gradation of the socio-economic status of the female folk and of the nation-incorporation of this factor in future policies is suggested.

A regional development of good facilities of higher education and job opportunities for women may reduce the migration flow and pressure on Dhaka city. This may also help in developing the respective regions and enhance the overall development of the nation.

Migration

Migration is an important component of population growth and redistribution. It is a highly acute, complex and selective method (Findlay, 1977). U.N.O (1970,1) defined migration ‘as a change of-residence from one civil division to another for a period of one year or more’. The decision to move is a highly complex process involving a variety of personal constraints conditioned by socio-economic condition, cultural values and personal motivation.

A Geographical analysis of female Migration towards Dhaka for Higher education has been carried out in this study. Education has proved to be an important component of migration selectivity. Mobility among young people has become, in many instances, a necessary prerequisite, both for access to education and subsequent job. Hutton (1973) suggests that movement takes place not only because of absolute poverty but also because of aspiration, which reaches a level that cannot be satisfied by local opportunities. A major stimulant to the rise in aspiration is education.

Women in Bangladesh constitute 48.6% of the total population (112 million). The literacy rate for women is still very low 25.8% as compared to 44.3% among men (BBS, 1994). Women constitute an important part of educational reconstruction in Bangladesh. But female enrolment is yet much lower in every stage of education. So, there must be a big thrust to raise female literacy and educational level as fast as possible. Due to lack of facilities many women have to move to more developed areas for higher education. In this country, female migration has been viewed as secondary, non-autonomous an non-economically motivated (Hussain,1997). Statistics from Ministry of Women and Children Affairs reveals that 1.7 million people in 1990 among these, 0.22% people migrated for economic reason. Out of that 30% are female migrants. Indeed, mobility of female students for higher education is a non economic movement, although education and occupation are closely related. Education may be defined as “a kind of investment whereby one acquires a better occupation which in turn ensures better income. Hence, the whole process results in an improvement of class position or socio-economic standing of an individual and his family” (Mahbub, AQM, 1997, Mobility Behaviour of working people in Bangladesh, P. 184 ).

Though diversified economic opportunity plays a vital role of drifting rural population towards the cities but adequate and secured educational facilities in cities are not less dominant at all. The opportunities of higher education are not available in rural areas or thana town. On the other hand, medium sized town i.e. Sylhet and particularly metropolitan cities i.e., Dhaka, Chittagong, Khulna, Rajshahi attract student migrants for higher studies. As a result, movement associated with education is becoming increasingly important.

Definition of Migration:

Scholars of different disciplines have tried to define migration distinctly because of their different approached. A simple definition of migration is a change in the place of residence, such a change of residence necessitates movement (Oberai, 1992 A. S. Migration, urbanization and Development). Those movement that involve less than one year stay are regarded as non-migratory. There is no unique definition of a ‘migrant’ or ‘migration’ because there is no unique way of measuring migration and no definition has yet been agreed upon that is independent of measurement.

However, many empirical studies define a ‘migrant’ as “a person who changes his/her residence for a period of time such as six moths or one year” (Mahbub,AQM,1997). The essential characteristics of migration is that it involves a change of residence either temporary or permanent.

Some definition of migration are given below:

The term ‘migration’ has been defined in the New Webster’s Dictionary, 1996, as “the act or an instance of moving from one area to another in search of work”.

According to Everett Lee, 1996, “Migration is a permanent or semi permanent change of residence”.

Hager strand, T., 1957 in study of Swedish migration fields has defined migration as “the change in the center of gravity of an individual’s mobility pattern “.

Eisenstadt, S.N., 1954, looks at migration as “the physical transition of an individual or a group from one society to another “.

Mehta, B.S., 1978, has treated migration as “an act of movement or spatial mobility. This involves defying space differentiating between the place of origin and the place of destination”.

As there is no uniform definition may conclude that the concept of migration should include three dimensions. Time, Space and Socio-economic implications. For the purpose of the present study, migration has been defined as a change of residence from rural/urban origin to Dhaka City at best for four years for higher education.

Classification/typology of migration:

Generally, migration can be divided into two categories:

• Internal migration
• International migration

Internal migration:

Migration within a given state-which consists of movement between different parts of that state, is called internal migration (U.N.O., 1958).

International migration:

When the change of residence occurs from one nation to another, is called international migration,’

Pattern of internal migration:

It may be classified into four types-a. Rural to Rural migration b. Rural to Urban migration c. Urban to Rural migration d. Urban to urban migration.

Gould and Prothero (1976) formulated a scheme to facilitate the study of internal population mobility in considering space and time as mentioned below:

Population Mobility

Some Specific Theories of Migration associated with this study:

Ravenstein’s laws of migration:

Theoretical explanations of rural-urban migration have a long history, dating from at least the 1880s when Ravenstein first proposed has ‘Laws of migration’ (Ravenstein, 1885 and 1889). Ravenstein included five explicit and two implicit statements concerning patterns and distance of migration, migratory streams, migration motives and characteristics of migrants. Ravenstein’s basic laws since been systematized and expanded many investigator.

According to these laws-

1. Migrants move from areas of low opportunities to areas of high opportunities.
2. The choice of destination is regulated by distance
3. Each stream of rural-urban migration produces a counter steam of return migration back to the rural areas.
4. Further he hypothesized that urban residence are less migratory than rural people, and that migration accelerates with the expansion of trade and industry.

Lee’s Theory of migration:

Building on Ravenstein’s laws, Lee developed a general scheme into which a variety of spatial movements can be placed (Lee, 1966). He divided the forces exerting an influence on migrant perceptions into ‘push and pull’ factors.

Push factors / Negative factors:

These factors tending to force migrants to leave areas of origin.

Pull factors/Positive factors:

These factors attract migrants to place of destinations in the expectation of improving the lot.

Source: Lewis. G.S. 1982. Human migration, pp 101

Lee hypothesized that-

Factors associated with origin area conditions would be more important than those associated with destination areas. Those forces associated with area of origin and destination-are governed by personal factors which affect individual thresholds and facilitate or retard migration (Lee, 1966, p. 51).

‘It is  actually not a  theory  but a  conceptual framework for classifying factors in migration decisions.’

Internal migration of Bangladesh:

The people of Bangladesh have been less mobile in the past. At present the country is passing through a period of dramatic growth and fundamental change in spatial mobility (Ahsan, Rosie Majid, 1998). The process of internal migration occurs in the form of rural to rural, rural to urban, urban to rural and urban to urban migration. More than 10 percent of the total population have been noted as life time migrants (BBS, 1994). The size of the urban population has been 23 to 25 million in 1996. During the last two interregnal period (1961-74 and 1974-81) the annual growth rate of urban population were 6.6 and 10.6 percent respectively. Either of these may be regarded as the highest population growth rate for any country in the world. During the 74-81 census period, rural to urban migration contributed nearly 74% of urban population growth. In recent decades, urban ward migration has been increased rapidly. The urban |i immigration rate has increased from about 14.5 in 1984 to over 35 in 1992 per thousand population (BBS, 1994) indicating a gradual change. The rural to urban migration rate was about 4 per thousand urban population in 1985 which increased to about 7 per thousand population in 1992. An estimate suggest that rural to urban migration will contribute about 60% of the total urban growth upto 2005 A.D (Barkat, 1996).

Dhaka, the capital city of Bangladesh has already grown into a megacity. The current population has been estimated to be 9 million (1997). According to National statistics, Dhaka SMA had over 34% migrant population during 61-74 period and 74% of its population were migrants from rural areas (Khan, 1982). During the last two to three decades, Dhaka has been considered as a ‘Mecca’ to a vast number of rural out migrants (Mahbub, AQM, 1998). It is indeed a city of migrants.

Factors influencing Rural-urban Migration:

In many Asian countries, as in the third world in general, rural poverty manifested in low agricultural income/wages, low productivity and underdevelopment are some of the important factors in pushing migrants out of rural areas towards areas with greater employment opportunities. The pressure of population, resulting in higher labour to land ratios has been widely hypothesized as one of the important causes of poverty and rural out migration in Asia. But the pressure of population is not the only cause of the increasing unemployment and poverty of the rural population. Equally important causes are the low rate of investment in agriculture, fragmentation of land ownership, inequalities in the distribution of land and other productive assets etc.(Oberai, A.S. 1992, State policies and Internal Migration). In addition, the natural calamities of Bangladesh such as- flood, drought, river bank erosion, cyclone etc. play significant roles in rural- urban migration. A survey shows that more than 80% of the urban population have migrated to the cities in search of employment (CUS, 1976).

Thus, the economic diversity (both formal and informal) is the principle cause of migration towards Dhaka. More over, better quality of work, educational opportunities, urban amenities, medical facilities above all, improved socio-economic status attract people to migrate.

Female migration pattern in Bangladesh:

Female migration is mostly categorized as ‘accompanying migration’ or ‘induced migration’ dependent on the head of the family (Ahsan, Rosie Majid, 1997). Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics indicates that the marriage migration is the main stream of female migration, accounting for more than 90% of the total rural to rural migration. On the other hand, female participation in labour force (both formal and informal sectors) in urban areas is increasing due to rural-urban migration. It is particularly noticed among the women of lower socio-economic strata. (Acute poverty, lack of work, change of socio-economic and cultural |condition and availability of employment in garment plants has motivated vomen to move to the metropolitan centers especially, the capital, Dhaka [(Hussain, Shahnaz Huq, 1997).

A study shows that more than half (60%) of the population in [Dhaka city are migrants (Islam, 1991), a large proportion of whom are [females. A survey conducted in 1988 on floating population in Dhaka city [suggested that 30% of such population were female. Besides, it may be [mentioned that migrant women prefer with priority to select ‘Dhaka’ as [their place of destination. Among the different factors, ‘education’ seems [to be a feasible factor for female migration within Bangladesh. As no lotion wide data is available for this, a study of internal female migration towards Dhaka for higher education may be expected to provide useful information.

Research objectives:

In the light of the present perspective, the specific objectives of this research are given bellow:

1. To analyze the regional pattern and the trend (92-93 and 96-97) of female students coming to Dhaka for higher education.
2. To evaluate the demographic characteristics and socio-economic status of female Students and their families.
3. To examine the Mobility pattern and the activity space of female student migrants,
4. Identifying the activity space of students on the basis of the location of institute (School/Colleges and Institution of   Higher studies).
5. Subsequent freedom for mobility at their home location after migration to Dhaka.
6. Types of Migration and Migrant’s future plane.

Research justification:

Internal migration has been an important feature of the socio-cultural and economic change, though the study of migration in general did not receive much attention from the Government and researchers in Bangladesh. Detailed empirical research on internal migration began very recently. The study that has been conducted is mostly on poor migrants who made an autonomous move to the cities for economic reason (Hussain, 1995, Ahsan, 1997, Mahbub, 1997 and others). Gender dimension and activity pattern of female (both rural and urban places) has long been neglected in geographical research in Bangladesh.

Female migration for educational purpose is relatively under researched in Bangladesh. The proportion of female in higher education is only 0.3% of the total female population (UNESCO, Statistical Year Book, 1989). Statistics from BANBEIS, 1998 reveals that there are 67,807 students enrolled in different Universities of Bangladesh (except Open and National University). Out of which 16,419 are female students. In consideration of the overall educational environment, migrant students are not less in number in Dhaka city. Of the total female university students, a large proportion approximately 25% have been studying in Dhaka University (BANBEIS, 1988). Of the total students (male and female) in Dhaka University, 41.59% (9510) are residential students . Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology accommodates 53.56% (2398) residential students (BBS, 1994). But there is no statistics available about the total residential students in University Colleges and Private hostels.

The enrolment of female students in higher education has been increasing gradually. But in consideration of the total higher studies (72057), their participation is still very low, 15862 approximately (BBS, 1993-94). Even then these small number of students can take great responsibilities of upgrading the socio-economic status of their own household and sustainable development of the community after completion of their study. Study of internal migration pattern on higher education has never been done before. Thus, this research make suggestion for future policies. In the light of this perspective, ‘A Geographical Analysis Of Female Internal Migration Towards Dhaka For Higher Education’ is more and logical and important.

Operational Definition:

Taking these above considerations into account, we may attempt to give an operational definition of female student migrants as those students who have moved to Dhaka city for higher education which involves a duration of stay of at least four years. These maintain direct and regular connection with their place of origin. For the present study female migration is not necessarily permanent in nature and can be termed as short-termed migration.

It is clear from this definition that, the field of inquiries were designed primarily to obtain information on movements related to higher study. The inquiry excluded movement for reasons such as, work (earning cash or kind), marriage, and many other social and cultural activities.

Methodology

It is essential to follow a definite procedure or way to achieve the research objectives / findings. The following methodology has been followed to carry out this piece of research work.

Study location/Sample area:

In the present study, the residential hostels of female are selected as sample area viz., the Dhaka University hostels-Rokeya, Shamsunnahar, Kuwait Maitry, Faizunnessa hostel, Dhaka Medical College Ladies hostel and BUET Ladies hostel. The primary data was surveyed and collected from the above six hostels. In addition, the female University colleges such as, Eden, Home Economics, Lalmatia and other two private hostels named-Nir, Nibir were selected to collect primary data. The locations of these private hostels are situated at Farmgate.

Hundred and Seventy three (173) female student migrants were taken as population from eleven hostels as mentioned above.

Data Collection/Data Sources:

The information was collected by questionnaire and guard file surveys to fulfill the research objectives.

Data collection (by guard file):

The information of all the resident students are maintained in the hostel office. To analyze the regional pattern and trend of female migrants in 1992-93 and 96-97 sessions information were collected from the guard file by coding manuals. These data could not be surveyed due to non-availability of guard files in the university colleges. Migrants’ educational related information and their place of origin (rural and urban residence) were collected from the guard files.

Data collection (by questionnaire survey):

A detailed questionnaire survey was conducted with the 173 female resident students of the eleven hostels mentioned earlier. A stratified sampling method was adopted. A general discussion was carried out as a preliminary study initially on the basis of which the questionnaire was prepared. Six types of information were set in the questionnaire.

1. Migrants’ personal information.
2. ‘Education, migration and socio economic information of migrant and her family members.’
3. ‘Migrants’ place of origin and distance of their schools and colleges from their residence.

Data Processing:

The information collected from the two sources were analyzed by using descriptive tabular analysis / statistical method and with the help of ‘SPSS’ package programme. Besides this flow diagram and other geographical techniques has been used for the analysis.

Regional Pattern And Trend Of Internal Female Migration For Higher Studies

Introduction:

In migration related studies, geographers are mainly concerned with spatial interaction and Arial differentiation between places of origin and destination. So, special and temporal analyses are essential in any research work on migration. In this study, a geographical analysis was conducted on female students who migrated to Dhaka for higher studies from different districts of Bangladesh. In this connection, a survey was carried out on female residential hostels to collect information on female students in higher studies. As no such data are documented any where in Bangladesh from the secondary data source, no information was available specially on female migration. Therefore, it was not possible to get a general picture of trend of internal female migration for higher studies. It may be mentioned here that those students who migrated for higher education involving at least four years’ duration and resided in residential hostels in Dhaka were treated as migrants for the purpose of the study. To meet the first objective of this study , data for regional pattern and the trend (92-93 and 96-97 session) of female migrant students has been collected from BBS data, the guard files of different university and college hostels and questionnaire survey of 173 sample resident students from different hostels. This has been analyzed on the basis of their place of origin.

World wide trends of higher education and women’ participation

UNESCO launched during early 1990’s a worldwide reflection exercise on main trend and challenges facing higher education. The working document of UNESCO, 1998 ‘Higher Education in the Twenty First Century Vision and Action’ shows that worldwide higher education served 82 million students in 1995. The growth was phenomenal over the last few decades. UNESCO’s projection for enrolment in higher education showed an increase in the number of students worldwide from 65 million in 1991 to 79 million in 2015 and 100 million by 2025. Projected enrolment in the developing countries also showed a strong increase: from 30 million students in 1991 to 40 million in the year of 2000, 50 million in 2015 and 54 million in 2025. Recent developments in higher education were diversed and often specific to regional, national and local context. UNESCO suggested that much progress occurred world wide in removing barriers to the enrolment of women in higher education. According to BBS in 1994, the number of female migrants in higher studies in Bangladesh was 72075.

UNESCO’s statistics showed that the percentage of women in the total student population in higher education increased from 34% in 1960 to 43% in 1980 and 45% in 1991. There were still noticeable differences between the major regions of the world. During 1991 the percentage of women students was 36% in South Asia, 33% in East Asia and 27% in Sub-Shahara Africa. In these areas where the female educational level continued to be far below the desired level, there should be a big thrust to raise female literacy and educational level as fast as possible.

Table-: Number of Literary Rate of Bangladesh

Source : BBS, 1991

Bureau of Statistics, Bangladesh reviewed the overall pattern of gender wise female educational attainment. It revealed that the literacy rate in Bangladesh increased steadily. Table-3.1 shows that female literacy increased from 13.2% in 1981 to 19.5% in 1991.

Rural-urban differential as presented in Table-3.2 was still substantial. In 1991, females in urban area were more literate (33.3% ) than females in rural area (16.3%). The gap between the two areas have been reducing with the passage of time. In case of female though the rate was low, the increasing rate was more than that of male due to the Government’s initiatives. Post-Graduate Educational Statistics of BBS are presented here for comparative analysis with the research data.

Table-: Rural-Urban difference of literacy rate by year and sex

Source: BBS, 1991

Table-: Division wise number and % of S.S.C and above passed females and residence 1991

Source: BBS, 1991

The rate of female students of SSC and above levels in 1991 were 12.24% of the total literate population and 2.39% of the total population in Bangladesh (Table-3.3). This ratio was 15.29% in Dhaka Division.

This rate is observed to be 10.44%, 8.93%, 11.14% and 11.59% respectively in Khulna, Barisal, Chittagong and Rajshahi Division as compared to the total literate population in Bangladesh. The proportion varied significantly between urban and rural areas. In urban area 7.61% females were literate as compared to the total population against 1.19% in rural areas in Bangladesh.

The significance of female educational attainment in higher studies is presented in (table-3.4).

Table-: Number of female students of Degree Colleges by level

Source: BBS, 1994

It represents that total number of female students in higher education in 1994 are 287193. Out of them 186019 in HSC level, 81067 in Degree of Pass, 14699 in Degree of Hons. 5409 in Master’s level. According to the BBS, 1994 (Women and Men in Bangladesh – Facts and Figures 1970 – 90) women’s representation at the higher secondary level had been steadily increasing from 10% of all students in 1982 to 28% in 1990. This suggests that once girls are able to overcome the barrier to secondary schooling their further education will become relatively easier , although they continue to lag behind men in access to higher education. The pattern of University enrolment of female students reflects that 24.19% students at the university level are females and 75.81% are males in 1995. The proportion of male verses female students are 1:3.13 (BANBEIS, Statistics, 1995). In addition, BANBEIS, Statistics, 1998 represents 16,419 female students out of 67,807 in different universities of Bangladesh (except Open and National University).

Moreover, in 1994, out of 15862 female students of different universities, 6988 and 579 students enrolled in Dhaka University and BUET respectively (Table-3.5).

Table -: The number of total and female enrolment by University in Bangladesh, 1989-90 to 1993-94

Source: BBS, 1994.
Trends of Internal Female Migration for Higher Education to Dhaka: On the basis of guard files of the different educational institutes

According to BBS data, during 1992-93 session there were 7292 (6712+580) female students enrolled in Dhaka University ad BUET. Out of which 470 (6.49%) migrated from different districts of Bangladesh. In 1997, the number of female migrant students went up to 592(8.1%). To investigate the trend and pattern of their mobility, all female residential students from 92-93 and 96-97 session from Dhaka University, BUET and Dhaka Medical College, a total of 1062 were taken as sample population. Out of this 470 female students (44.25%) were in 92-93 session and 592 students were (55.75%) in 96-97 session who migrated to Dhaka for higher education from different districts of Bangladesh. The analysis of Table-3.6 indicates that altogether 79.94% of these students (849) are residing in Dhaka University. Out of this 849 students i.e.43.93% were in 1992 – 93 session and 56.06% were in 1996 – 97 session migrated to Dhaka. On the other hand, Dhaka Medical College stood in the 2^nd position, with 135 (12.80%) female students. Forty-nine decimal six two percent came in 1992 – 93 session and 50.37% in 1996 -97 session. Moreover, comparatively a smaller number of female students only 78 (7.34%) migrated to study in Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology. Out of these 78 students, 30 came during 92-93 session and 48 came during 96-97 session.

Table-:   Number of female migrants

Source: Guard file survey, 1992-93 and 1996-97 session

Table-: Number of female migrant students by faculty /Institute for higher education in Dhaka, 92-93 and 96-97 session

Source : Guard file survey, 1992-93 to 1996-97

The number of female student migrants by faculty/Institute of the two session (92 – 93 and 96 – 97) is shown in Table-3.7. Out of 849 female migrants of Dhaka University, the highest number of female students 561 (52.73%) were enrolled in Arts Faculty. Out of them 23.6% and 29.1% female students were enrolled in 92 – 93 and 96 – 97 session respectively. A total of 214(24.14%) female students migrated for studying in Science Faculty of Dhaka University in the two sessions. Their proportion rate was comparatively lower. On the other hand, 58 (5.45%) and 16(2.1%) female students studied in Commerce, Fine Arts and Sculpture. One hundred thirty five (12.7%) female students migrated to study in Medical Science. There were no significant difference found in the proportion rate of two sessions among the three faculties. Besides, 78 (7.3%) students studied in BUET in 1992-93 and 96-97 session. In 1996-97 session had 18 more female students than in the session of 92-93. It should be mentioned here that when total number students by faculty are checked the arts faculty students are bigger in number.

Regional pattern of Female Student Migration: On the basis of Guard files

Place of origin of female migrants: Rural-Urban variations

Rural – urban origin of the female student migrants is presented in Table-3.8. In 92-93 session 54.68% female students were of urban origin against 45.32% female students of rural origin who migrated to Dhaka for higher studies. On the other hand, in 1996-97 session 51.85% students were of urban origin against 48.15% female students of rural area. This indicates a small rise of women coming from rural areas.

Table-: Female Student migrants of Dhaka City: Places of Origin (Rural /Urban.

Source : Guard file survey, 1992-93 to 1996-97.

Table- Place of Origin of female migrants: Rural-Urban variations

Source: Guard file survey, 1992-93 to 1996-97.

In the two sessions out of 493 female students of rural origin, most of the students i.e. 83 came from Dhaka district followed by Faridpur and Jessore districts (table 3.9 and map-1). These two districts sent 54 and 48 female students from rural origin. Chittagong and Patuakhali districts sent female students to Dhaka for higher education 5 and 4 students respectively. Only three female students of rural origin from Chittagong Hill Tracts came to Dhaka.

On the other hand, out of 561 students of urban origin once, again Dhaka district sent the largest number of female students (163) followed by Mymensingh and Comilla districts with 42 and 41 female students respectively.. The lowest number of female students (8) of urban area origin came from Dinajpur to Dhaka for higher studies. Faridpur, Jessore, Barisal and Khulna districts sent comparatively large students from rural origin than urban areas. It is clear that the number of female students increased from rural areas than from urban areas with the passage of time. The gap between the rural-urban literacy rate of female students in higher studies is becoming narrower.

Female Student Migration: Division wise

The principle objective of this study is to analyze the regional pattern of female students’ migration to Dhaka for higher education. A total of 1054 female students in two sessions were presented division wise for this purpose-on the basis of administrative set up, Bangladesh is broadly divided into six major divisions – Dhaka, Chittagong, Barisal, Khulna, Rajshahi and Sylhet. Based on these divisions, a broad regional pattern of female students is presented in Table-3.10 and map-2.

Table-: Female students migrated to Dhaka for higher education by division: 92-93, 96-97 session

Source : Guard file survey, 1992-93 to 1996-97.

According to table 3.10, most of the students migrated from the Dhaka division followed by Khulna division. The number of female students from these two divisions were 491 (46.58%) and 177 (16.79%) respectively. Thus, a total of 668 female students (63.37%) out of 1054 migrated from these two divisions. The percentage of migrants from Rajshahi and Chittagong divisions were 14.23% and 12.52% respectively. Besides, a small number of female students from Sylhet division migrated to Dhaka followed by Barisal division. The total number of female students were 104 (83 +21) from these two divisions. The percentage of these divisions were low (9.86%.)

Migrants District of Origin:

District of origin is an important indicator in understanding the geographical pattern and the condition of the source region (Hossain, Shahnaz Huq, 1997). Bangladesh consisted of 21 greater districts according to the 1981 census. Female students of different districts of origin were presented in table-3.11, map-3 &.4.

Table-: Regional Pattern of Female, students migrated to Dhaka for higher education : 92-93 session and 96-97 session

Different Hostels

Source : Guard file survey, 1992-93 to 1996-97.

It has been observed from previous table that Dhaka district sent 246 female students to the Metropolitan Dhaka for higher studies. It was noticed that 123 female students from each session migrated from Dhaka district. Out of which (246), 175 female students studied in Dhaka University, 30 in BUET and 41 in Dhaka Medical College. The total number of female migrants of Dhaka district from these three institutes were the highest in number. A total of 307 female students for higher studies sent to Dhaka from greater Mymensingh (85), Jessore (78), Khulna (73) and Comilla (71) districts. The number of female students migrated from these greater districts were more or less similar in the two sessions. Besides this, districts of northern region – Bogra, Dinajpur, Rajshahi and Rangpur sent a total of 150 female students to the capital. The total number of the female students of the above districts was slightly increased in 1996 – 97 session. Greater Chittagong and Noakhali sent 54 female students (27 from each district). Moreover, greater Barisal and Faridpur sent 135 (69 + 66) female students to Dhaka. Only 7 students migrated from Chittagong H.T. The speciality of these analysis was most of the students of different districts of origin migrated for studying in Dhaka University. Dhaka Medical and BUET accommodated a small number of female migrants.

Regional Pattern of Female student Migration: On the basis of questionnaire survey

The analyses of 173 sample population in Table-3.12, map-5 & 6 reveals that a total of 26 female students migrated from greater Dhaka district for studying in different Institutions. Out of which, 16 female students who migrated from different areas of Dhaka district to study in Dhaka University. The next positions were occupied by greater Mymensingh (17), Comilla (15), and Barisal (13) districts.

Table- Regional Pattern of Female students for higher education Different Halls

Source : Questionnaire survey, 1999

Twenty four female students (12 from each district) came to Dhaka from Faridpur and Khulna districts. Rangpur, Patuakhali, Noakhali and Chittagong sent 25 female students (five from each district) to Dhaka for higher higher studies. Only one female student from Tangail district came to study in Dhaka University. It was noticed that none of the female student migrated from Bandarban and Chittagong H.T.

It was found from the above two analysis that the results of these two sources are nearly similar. Dhaka district sent a large number of female students for higher studies. Mymensingh district held its 2^nd position in both the survey.

On the basis of the findings of this study, it may be inferred that as migration distance increases, the amount of female student migration for higher studies decreases. This observation can be proved by the fact that the internal student migration of the sample population was particularly high from adjacent areas within Dhaka Division (46.58%). On the other hand, the districts of Rajshahi and Chittagong Divisions, the three areas are furthest from Dhaka sent comparatively less female students. Chittagong Division, the areas furthest from Dhaka sent comparatively less female students.

Female student migrants places’ of birth

Female student migrants’ places of birth is represented in map-7. It displays that the highest number of female students (11) birth place was Kishoreganj district followed by Narshingdi (9) and Dhaka (8) district. Once again the distance decay pattern was noticed.

The characteristics of migrants are the most significant determinants in any kind of migration work. This research work has been done on the female students who migrated to Dhaka city for higher education. One hundred seventy three female students of different residential hostels (such as Dhaka University, BUET, DMC, three University colleges and private Hostels) were taken as sample population. The demographic characteristics of these students were given below:

Characteristics of female migrants

Age Pattern

Age is an influencing factor in the migration process of female students. UNFPA, 1993 stated that female migrants were concentrated particularly in the 16-24 years age group before first marriage and commonly made their first move while still in their teens.

Table-: Age structure of the Female student migrants

Source: Questionnaire survey, 1999

The age structure of the female student migrants showed in Table-4.1 that young females dominated this migration stream.

A very high proportion of the respondents 95.94% (166 ) made their first move to Dhaka city for higher education belong to 16-19 age group. However, it should be remembered that the university students are expected to be in 16-24 age group.

This may be explained in the light that age at time of migration for higher education are closely related to migration decision and the educational levels of female migrants. The students who migrated for higher studies after completing their secondary level education belong to 15-19 years age group. The age after migration was fully dependant on duration of their study period. A total of 65.85% (114) female students belonged to 20-23 and 24-27 adult age groups at present time. Their duration of staying was probably 2-4 years. Only 4.61% were >27 years age group at present time. They were mostly M.Phil students.

Marital Status:

Regarding marital status, it has been noticed that all the sample of female population (173) were unmarried. A large proportion of whom 75% had given their full preference on own choice for their marriage, only 25% willing to give priority on parents’ decision. Besides, another question on the proper age of marriage, 80% of female students answered, 23-25 years as the most proper time to get married. In fact, marital status hampered the educational life of female students.

Religion Pattern:

Table-: Religion pattern of the female student migrants Religion

Source : Questionnaire survey, 1999

Religious affiliation is a most important social indicator. In this country. Majority people are Muslims. It reveals from the primary data that a total of 84.39% female student migrants were Muslim, out of those, 40.46% were Dhaka University students. Besides, 15.02% were Hindu. These students were proportionately higher than other residential students (4.62%). Only one Buddhist students of Dhaka University was found in the questionnaire survey.

Table-: Religion pattern of the female student migrants

Source : Guard file survey, 1992-93 to 1996-97 session.

Similar pattern was found from the guard file survey. In 1992 to 1993 session out of 470 female students, 404 (85.96%) were Muslims, 60 (12.76%) were Hindu, 5 (1.06%) were Buddhist. On the other hand, in 1996-97 session 505 (85.30%) were Muslims, 45(12.67%) were Hindu and 11 (1.86%) were Buddhist. Only 2 female students in the two sessions were Christian session. It was noticed that the majority of the female students were Muslim.

Socio Economic Status: Families Of Migrants

Family structure of female student migrants by rural-urban origin:

Family structure of the female migrants was analyzed Table-5 by single family and joint family. Out of 173 students of primary survey, 12.71% students were from joint families and 87.20% from single families. Out of 82 students of Dhaka University, 66 were from single families. Fourteen students were from joint families of rural origin. Only 2 students of Dhaka University from joint families of urban origin. Besides, no student of BUET came from joint family in rural and urban areas. Two students of DMC and 4 female students of colleges and four private hostels came from joint families and rest were from single family.

Table- Family structure of the Female student migrants

Source: Questionnaire survey, 1999.

Educational qualification of household heads of female migrants:

Educational qualification of heads of the households of female migrants in higher studies is presented in table-4.5. It could be seen from the analysis that none of the head of the households was below S.S.C. or S.S.C. level of student migrants of BUET and Medical Colleges. Two heads of the households of the of the residents of private hostels were found below S.S.C. level. Besides, 16 head of the households of female students of Dhaka University were below S.S.C. and S.S.C. levels. Most of the heads of the households were Masters and graduate degree holders. Their percentage was 26.57% and 24.58% respectively. A total of 44 head of the households were found below S.S.C., S.S.C. and H.S.C. levels. The proportions of these three levels educational qualification were 5.2% ,7.5% and 12.71% respectively.

Table – : Educational qualification of Heads of the family

Educational Qualification

Source: Questionnaire survey, 1999

Educational Qualification: Mothers of Female migrants

Table-4.6  shows that the highest 29.478% mothers  of female student migrants passed S.S.C. level. Twenty three point twelve percent mothers got H.S.C. degree and 6.35% mothers were graduate. The lowest 0.57% mothers had their post graduation degree whereas percentages of illiterate and below S.S.C. passed mother was as 11.56% and 28.90% respectively. There was no illiterate or below S.S.C. passed mother of BUET or medical students.

Table-: Educational qualification: Mothers of female student migrants

Different hostels

Source: Questionnaire survey, 1999

It is clear from the analysis that approximately 89 ( 43 Graduate + 46 Masters ) female students came from the highly educated families, 34 (21 + 13 ) from medium educated families and 7 from half literate families.

Occupation of the Heads of household:

Education and occupation were related inseparably. Table–presents that out of 173 students, 32.94% ( 57 ) family heads were in administrative jobs followed by business and teaching professions. The percentage of these two professions were 24.27% ( 48 ) and 18.49% ( 32 ) respectively. Besides, professional jobs ( medical, Engineering and farming), law and journalism occupied 15.02% and 5.7% ).

Table- : Occupation of Heads of the household Occupation

Source : Questionnaire survey, 1999

In this study, 9 head of the households were found in farming occupation. No head of the household of female migrant students of Dhaka University was found in engineering profession. Similarly, none of the head of the household were in Journalism profession and Farming found in BUET, Medical and colleges Private hostels respectively. The fact was that the expenditure of the colleges and private hostels were too high. Thus, the head of the households who were engaged in farming, the expenditure of higher education was preferably beyond their capacity.

A study of Shamina Islam ( 1977 ) on the socio-economic background of Dhaka University students mentioned that as compared to boys, very few girls came from farming background. It is similar to the above analysis.

Income of the heads of house holds:

Table- reveals that monthly income of the family head of students. Monthly income was divided into 7 stages.

Table- : Income of the Head of the household Income

Source : Questionnaire survey, 1999.

Out of 173 female students, 40 ( 23.12% ) head of the households of female migrants were in Tk. 8001 – 10,000 income range. Seventy four (21.38% + 21.38% ) family head of the female student migrants earned Tk. 6001 – 8000 and Tk. 4001 – 6000 taka range of income. Besides, the income range of Tk. 2001 – 4000 and below 2000 taka included 12 ( 1.15% + 4.6%)female migrants’ head of the households. A total of 49 (18.49% + 9.8% ) family heads’ earning range was Tk. 10,000 – 12,000 and above. It was found from the analysis that a total of 32 female students came from higher income families. Approximately 57 students from higher middle income families (range 8001 – 10,000 and 10,001 – 12,000 ) and 74 female migrants from middle income families, 10 came from lower income families (range Tk.2001 -4000 and >Tk.2000).

Mobility Pattern And Activity Space Of    Female Student Migrants In Higher Education

The pattern of female migration rates and causes vary significantly from region to region and over time (Salma Islam, 1995). The decision to move is a highly complex process involving a variety of personal constraints conditioned by cultural values and personal motivation. The extent of women’s activity space also varies by culture and region. Johnston (1986) defined activity space as “the space in which the majority of an individual’s activities are carried out. It usually consists of distinct points, i.e. it is discontinuous, and can be mapped either as a point pattern or a time-space diagram”. Mazey and Lee, 1983 opined that during a woman’s life course, the area of her activity space increases through childhood and usually reaches its greatest extent during her productive years. In rural Bangladesh mobility and employment opportunities of women have traditionally been restricted. Their movement is traditionally confined within their household territories. Even then the perimeter of female space in rural Bangladesh has been expanding in recent years, as consequences of socio-economic changes related to increasing landlessness and impoverishment (Bimal Kanti Paul, 1992). In this chapter, mobility pattern and activity space of female student migrants in higher education: on the basis of the location of their educational Institutions have been identified. The activity space has also been analyzed through generations i.e. through place of higher studies of mothers.

Changing pattern of mobility:

The movement of the students to the areas to be educated represents, for many, the first significant break with the extended family and may be regarded as perhaps the initial stage in their life cycle of migration (Chadwell, 1969 ). The focus essentially had been given in this study on the structural characteristics of movement, that is, the volume, distance, direction and timing. There is a strong tendency for the number of migrations to fall with increasing distance concern with geographers.

During their school and college life:

Table-: Mobility Pattern of female students: On the basis of locations and institutions(School/Colleges)

Source : Questionnaire survey, 1999

It reveals from the Table-5.1 that during their school life, out of 173 female student migrants, 169 (97.68%) resided with their parents in their places of residence and completed their school level education at those places. Besides, 4 (2.31%)female students completed their school level education in another town and had no opportunities staying with their parents. On the other hand, during their college life, a total of 139 (80.34%)female students studied at the places of origin and 34 (19.65%)female students studied in different towns.

The location of school and the place of residence of four female students who completed their school level education in another town are presented in table-.

Table-: Place of Residence and the location of schools to another town.

Source: Questionnaire survey, 1999

Distance traveled for school and college purpose (same place)

The daily traveling pattern and activity space of female students during their school and college life have been attempted to be identified. Among the students (166) who went to school and colleges in the same place of residence, 8 students travelled daily 3-3.22 K.M. from their place of residence to attend their school within same places (table ).

Table-: Distance between the place of residence and the school/college of own place.

Mean distance of school =1.0 KM Source: Questionnaire survey, 1999.

Mean distance of college = 2.5 KM

The daily traveling pattern and activity space of female students during their school and college life have been attempted to be identified. Among the students (166) who went to school and colleges in the same place of residence, 7 students traveled daily 3-3.22 K.M. from their place of residence to attend their school within same places. Their average daily traveling distance was 1.00 K.M. The distance of .25 K.M and .5 K.M between the places of residence and schools of same village / town traveled daily by 54 (27+28) female students. During their college life, a total of 107 female students, on an average daily traveling college distance of same place (village/town) was 2.5 K.M. The longest distance for college purpose (3.22 K.M.) was traveled by only 13 (12.14%) students while the 2^nd longest distance (2.5 K.M.) was traveled by 12 (11.2%) and the shortest distance (0.80 K.M.) was covered by 22 (20.56%). 1.6 K.M. distance covered by the highest number of students 23 (21.41%).Thus altogether distance decay pattern is not followed strictly similar trend is noticeable. Salma Islam, 1998 in her study opined that the daily traveling pattern and minimum activity space of a school girl depends on how far away her school is located. The average distance had to travel by all students were nearly the same.

Distance between place of residence and the school/college (village to town)

Table-: Distance between the place of residence and the School/ College: Village to Thana/District town.

Source: Questionnaire survey, 1999.

Students traveling to other towns for education shows in table 5.4. The highest daily traveling distance traveled by a female migrant in her school life was 8 K.M. One student traveled by 6.8 K.M. and another traveled 4.8 K.M approximately from village to thana town. These students traveled these distances to attend a better school than the near by one. During their college life, the highest distance of 12.8 K.M. was traveled daily by a female student followed by 6 and 5.6 K.M. distance from village to thana town. These two distance were traveled by 16 (7+9) female students to attend college.

Though the transport facilities had made it easy for school girls to expand their mobility patterns and activity space in urban areas found in Islam’s study (1998 ) but most of the parents wanted to enroll their daughter at the nearest school of their residence. It may be mentioned that the female students of urban origin (Thana/District town) had some educational facilities. It is the main factor of their movement from village to Thana town.

Destination from the place of residence for college education: Another town

Table-: Destination from place of residence for college education.

Source : Questionnaire survey, 1999

Table- shows that a total of 34 female students moved to other town during their college life and most of them resided in the college adjacent hostels, these students took the better opportunities of higher education.

Out of these 34 students 21 students from 13 different districts moved to Dhaka City during their higher secondary school period. Besides, 9 students moved to another districts to attend their colleges. These students further moved to Dhaka City for higher education. In other words, the typology followed by these female students was called step migration.

It may be stated from the above analysis that those female students whose educational environment and infra structural opportunities of school and colleges were not satisfactory at their place of origin, moved to another city for enrolment. Although their mobility were more or less restricted by their parents. But once a girl cross the school level boundary she had been given more preference to attend the distant colleges. And further these aspiration might push them to Dhaka City for higher education. Thus, the activity space of a college student is greater than that of a school girl.

Mobility pattern of female migrants in higher studies:

On the basis of geographical and administrative set-up, Bangladesh is broadly divided into four major regions: Dhaka, Chittagong, Khulna and Rajshahi Divisions. These are also designated as central, eastern, southern and northern regions respectively (United Nations, 1981:30). Based on these divisions, movement pattern of female students from their places of origin to Dhaka can be analyzed by distance, time, mode of transport and expenditure. It showed that 4 female students from northern region specially Dinajpur, Thakurgaon and Panchagor traveled the highest distance by road/train 499-419 K.M.(by road). The traveling time is 7-9 hours and the cost of transport is 250-300 taka. A student of Panchagor district traveled the highest distance 499 K.M out of 173 female student migrants traveled by bus. Her traveling time was 10 hours and transport cost was 250 taka. Twenty five students of other northern region districts traveled 161-396 K.M., their travelling time and cost were 30-8 hours and 100 – 300 taka respectively. A female student of BUET migrated from Nilphamari (Place of origin) traveled 396 K.M. within 7:30 hours and her transport cost was 300 taka. Besides, Table- reveals that 48 female student migrants of southern region traveled 201 – 393 K.M. The time consumed by these road distance was 3:30-8 hours and the transport cost was 200-350 taka, Most of these students traveled by bus and their break of journey was at Aricha-Daulatdia Ferry ghat. The break of time of these place was 1-1:30 hours.

On the other side, 11 female students of south eastern region (Noakhali and Chittagong) traveled 191-264 K.M. distance by road and 346 K.M. by train. The time consumed by this road was 3-6 hours and traveling cost was 100-300 taka. These route had a few minutes brake of journey. Twenty female students of eastern region traveled 102-278 K.M. distance by road. Their travelling time was 3-9 hours and the cost was 150-300 taka.

Fifteen students of Comilla district travelled 102-169 K.M. Some of the students of greater Comilla district (Chandpur) travelled more easily by river route also.

65 students of central region traveled comparatively shorter distance 17-174 K.M. Their travelling time was 1:30-6 hours and the cost was 20-250 taka. These are the adjacent districts of Dhaka City. It is natural to observe most of the students migrated from these districts to Dhaka for higher studies. It was noticed that 26 female students of Dhaka district traveled 17-52 K.M. within 1-2:30 hours with 20-33 Taka. Though their travelling time, distance and cost were less but they enjoyed the residential facilities of different institutions and were not interested in daily travelling. This observation proved twice by the fact that most of the female students migrated from adjacent areas within Dhaka Division or from the nearest districts. As distance of migration increased the amount of female students’ migration decreased. Thus, distance and transport facilities played the strong influence on the volume of internal female migration towards Dhaka City for higher education. Besides, the over all educational environment in different districts were not less significant.

A schematic representation of female student migrants’ activity space has been made adapting Bimal Kanti Paul’s Model:

Bimal Kanti Paul (1992) in his study on ‘Female Activity Space in Rural Bangladesh’ opined that though the neighborhood boundary generally determines the extent of female space in rural Bangladesh, the area may vary in size according to a women’s status, age and religion as well as the geographical location and size of neighborhood.

He found that space for women who live in urban fringe areas should be longer than overall female space. In the previous study, it has been observed that activity space of a female student of rural origin, increasing with the time and educational level.

1. Space of women of rich and religious families/young wives.
2. Overall female spaces.
3. Space of elderly/Hindu/poor women.
4. Male space/space of tribal women

Adapting Paul’s activity space model, diagrams are drawn to identify activity space of the two groups on the basis of average distance covered to go to school, college and the University. During 1991-94 average distance between permanent residence and school was 7.95 K.M. while average distance between permanent residence and college was 24.72 K.M. and average distance between permanent residence and University was 214.68 K.M.

On the other hand during 1995-98 average distance between permanent residence and school was 5.86 K.M. while the average distance between permanent residence and college was 20.42 K.M. and the University was 205.83 K.M.

The average traveling distance during their school/college and university life in the year of early period 91-94 and later period 1995-98 was nearly the same. It should be mentioned that the distance traveled by the female students of later period 1995-96 slightly decreased. The female students migrants of this two years were within the same decade, this might be the main reason behind their approximately average traveling distance (school, college and institution of higher studies. Moreover the distance mentioned here could be inaccurate. As they were estimation by the students.

Freedom of Mobility: Place of origin /destination:

Female with higher education usually had more freedom of movement (table 5.10). Their freedom of mobility could be divided into three categories: no freedom in the past or now, freedom not existed in the past and but exists now, freedom in the past and now.

Table-: Freedom of mobility of female student migrants at their place of origin and destination

Place of origin

* Excluded private hostels

Source : Questionnaire survey, 1999

Out of 87 female students of Dhaka University migrants, most of the students of rural origin had freedom in the past and now. On the other hand, 14.11% (23) responded that they had no freedom in the past and now, students of rural area of origin supported these type of movement at their place of origin. Besides, 32.51% (53) responded that the freedom not existed in the past but exists now. These might be the consequences of changing social environment and the changed attitude of their parents, when the female students enrolled in higher studies.

Freedom of mobility at their place of destination had been presented in table .Out of these 163 female migrants 73.61% felt secured to move within Dhaka city (place of destination), and 26.38% responded not to move safely. Security was the main problem of their movement within Dhaka city.

Factors compelling/ encouraging the Female Student Migration for Higher Education towards Dhaka:

The factors involve attractive or repulsive roles between the causes of mobility and their effects. The forces may either be attractive or repulsive by depending on a person’s characteristics, his/her demands, propensity and desirability or preference. Thus, the forces are totally interrelated, their analyses and judgment cannot be done individually. Lee. 1966 divided that-forces exerting an influence on migrant perception into ‘Push’ and ‘Pull’ factors. ‘Push’ factors always play a negative role tending to force migrants to leave origin areas. On the other hand, ‘pull’ factors treated as positive factors attracting migrants to place of destinations. The factors that interested a person to migration should be analyzed very acutely in any research work of migration. In this manner, the factors acting as positive or negative roles between the place of origin and destination have been investigated.

Out of 360 answers of the respondents, 143 (39.72%) answers of the female students opined the scope for higher education similar with the first compelling factors. The highest 24 and 14 answers of the Dhaka and Mymensingh female students respectively responded this factor. Sixty two (17.22 answers from the respondents wanted for getting improved and greater opportunities for education. To be well established in life or having better opportunities in future, 55 (15.27%) answers of the respondents stated their opinion on this factors. Out of these 55 answers, 16 answers of the female students of Dhaka district gave their views also. 42 (11.66%) answers of the respondents stated the eagerness to study in BUET, Dhaka University and Dhaka Medical College in these reputed institutions. Seven answers of the female students of Barisal gave their opinion. The other factors were- getting freedom of mobility, scope for studying in choice able subject, scope for social and cultural activities, to uplift standard of living and adjacent areas from their places of origin, a total of 58 (2.77%+6.38%+2.24%+2.5%+2.22%) answers were stated by the female students for these factors.

In the present situation of Bangladesh, the lack of good educational environment and infra-structural facilities were found almost in 21 districts. Moreover, location of institute for higher studies are totally unbalanced. For these reasons, the percentage of female enrolment for higher studies are comparatively lower. The female students’ mobility is more or less restricted outside their place of origin at present time also. The scope of study in wider space for female students was not developed in this country. Most of the facilities were centered and developed within Dhaka-capital base. These might have pushed them for higher education. Therefore, the propensity rate of the female students to move to Dhaka City is much higher for these compelling and encouraging factors.

Table-:Nature of Future Profession of Female students Migrants:

Source: Questionnaire survey, 1999.

Table-: Female students Resident after leaving Academic Hostel

Source : Questionnaire survey, 1999.

Future Plan

Residence after leaving academic hostels:

The total of 173 female residential students, 149 female students willing to stay in Dhaka permanently after completing their higher studies and 24 could not take decision staying or not to staying in Dhaka. It depends on their parents’ decision (table-5.13). Out of these 149 students, 53.69% (80) gave their opinion to stay in rental houses, 29.53% (44) students in Working Women Hostel. Only 16.77% gave opinion to stay with their close relatives.

Nature of future profession:

A higher educated person has diversified professional opportunities (table-5.14). The highest 50.92% students wanted govt. job as their future profession. It was the first preference of female students of the selected educational institutions. It is clear that govt. employment is the most secured job for women rather than NGO and private firms. Even than 14.72% students wanted to take these job as their future professions. Only 5 female students of Dhaka University wanted to take the challenges of business/self employment. The truth comes out from the analysis that the field and prospects of female students in private NGOs still are not developed largely. Besides, 18.40% (30) students gave their willing to study abroad.

It is noticed that the thoughts and ambitions of female students changed day by day. A literature of Ronnak Jahan and Hanna Papanek (1979) stated that lack of modern education is one of the major barriers into female participation in decisions making and monitized sector of the economy. Conclusion may be drawn from this point of view that higher education is perceived as the avenues to a better life and a more prosperous future.

CONCLUSION

Education is an important indicator of migration selectivity. The decision to move is a highly complex process involving a variety of personal constraints influenced by socio-economic condition, cultural values and personal motivation. Education seems to be a feasible factor for the female migration within Bangladesh. A Geographical analysis of female migration towards Dhaka for Higher Education has been carried out in this study. Therefore, this study looks into the primary step of internal migration and mobility and activity space for higher education. There has not been any analysis conducted on gender wise internal migration for higher education and as such, no nation wide data has been available. Thus female migration for education purpose is relatively under researched in Bangladesh. The enrolment of female student in higher education has been increasing gradually. The women besides men from different district of Bangladesh migrated to Dhaka for higher education.

The research work has been conducted to acquire knowledge on the female students migrated to Dhaka from different districts for higher studies on different aspects. The objectives taken to carry out this research work are -analyzing the trend (92-93 and 96-97 session) and regional pattern of female internal migration came to Dhaka for higher education, examine demographic characteristics and socio-economic status of female migrants and their families, examine the mobility pattern and activity space of female student migration through generations. To carry out this research work, data has been collected from two sources. To investigate the over all background of female migrants in two session 1992-93 and 1996-97, data are collected from the different residential hostels by guard files. The migrant’s educational information and their place of origin (rural and urban residence) were collected from the guard files / These students migrated to Dhaka for higher education from different districts of Bangladesh. Out of 1062, 470 female students (44.25%) were in 1992-93 session and 592 students were (55.75%) in 96-97 session migrated to Dhaka for higher education. The number of students slightly increased (11.5%) in 96-97 session. It has been noticed that comparatively a smaller number students come to BUET. On the basis of faculty or Institution, it reveals that, the large proportion of female student migrant 52.73% (561) enrolled in Arts Faculty of Dhaka University.

It is found from the regional pattern of female student migration that 564 (53.10%) female students were of urban origin as against 498 (46.89%) female students of rural origin migrated to Dhaka for higher education in the two sessions. The gaps between the rural-urban literacy rate of female students in higher studies is becoming narrower. Faridpur, Jessore, Barisal and Khulna districts sent comparatively large number of students from rural origin than from urban origin.

The division wise students migration pattern indicates that out of 1062, most of the female students migrated from the Dhaka Division, 491 (46.58%) 2^nd and 3^rd positions are occupied by Khulna and Rajshahi l.2.3%. Divisions with 177 (16.79%) and 1$0 (63.37%) female students migration. A small number of female students , 83 and 21 migrated from Sylhet and Barisal Divisions respectively.

It has been observed from migrants district of origin (guard file survey) that Dhaka district sent the highest in number 246 female students to Metropolitan Dhaka for higher education. Only 7 students migrated from Chittagong H.T. to Dhaka for higher education. Districts of origin studied on the basis of the questionnaire survey shows that out of 173 population, 26 migrated from greater Dhaka district. Mymensingh, Comilla, Barisal, Faridpur districts sent 17, 15,13 and 12 female students to Dhaka respectively for higher education. None of the female student migrated from Chittagong H.T. and Bandarban.

The female migration demographic and socio-economic characteristics indicate that young female students dominated this migration stream (l£.94%) belonging to 16-19 age group. All of the female students were unmarried. Religion affiliation of female migrants indicates that the highest number of female migrants as regarded through both questionnaire and guard file were Muslims.

Socio-economic characteristics of female students indicates that those students who migrated for higher studies came from Higher middle class families and Middle class families of urban origin. Majority (51.15%) fathers of the female migrants were masters and graduate degree holders. Their pattern is systematical with the occupation of the heads of house hold, whereas 51.21% were in administrative and business professions.

The analysis on mobility pattern and activity space of female migrants on the basis of their school/college location showed that 169 (97.68%) resided with their parents at their place of origin. Their average traveling distance from place of residence to school was 1 K.M. Their daily traveling average distance to attend college was 2.5 KM. Only 3 female students during their school life and 34 in their college life moved to another town and resided in hostels adjacent to college. Out of these students, 2Q female students migrated to Dhaka City from 13 different districts during their college life. The movement pattern of female students from their place of origin to Dhaka can be analyzed by distance, time, mode of transport and expenditure. The average traveling distance of female student migrants during their university life was 214.68 K.M.

Adapting Paul’s’ activity space model, diagrams are drawn to identify activity space of the two groups (early period 91-94 and later 95-98) on the basis of average distance covered to go to school, college and university stated that their average traveling distance was nearly the same. Another analysis on the basis of mother’s educational qualification stated that the mothers of only two female students before 95 migrated to Dhaka for higher studies from their place of residence. Among the rest of the mother 6.35% were graduates, 23% went through college and 27.47% completed schooling.

The nature of movement of female student migrants revealed that all were accompanied with some one at their first migration. The nature of movement during later migration was totally different. 98% moved alone from the place of residence to destination. 99.99% traveled to their place of residence once in every 3 months, But the visits usually were relatively of short duration.

Regarding freedom of mobility of female students, it was observed that female with higher education usually had more freedom of movement 62% female students of urban areas of origin had freedom in the past and present as against 32% had no freedom either in the past or at present in rural areas.

The factors behind female students migration for higher studies indicated that lack of scope of higher education was the main cause. 59.54% supported this factor. The other two factors were no scope for participating in social and cultural activities and no scope for studying in wider environment. The female students gave their opinions more about the pull factors of migration. It is symmetrical with the Lee’s theory. Among these factors, scope for higher education was the most important factor (31.42%). The other factor are opportunities for education, urge to be well established in life and having better opportunities in future.

Comparative analysis with the Ravenstein’s law stated that the choice of destination is regulated by distance. The distance decreases the mobility increases. Similarity might be found with this hypothesis in the present study. The internal female migration of the sample population was particularly high from adjacent areas within Dhaka Division (46.53%). The districts of Rajshai and Chittagong Divisions being in the areas furthest from Dhaka sent comparatively less female students. Another hypothesis of Ravenstein’s law (restated by Lee, 1966) in a series of hypothesis stated that migration responding primarily to plus factors at destination tend to be positively selective. The selected female students as sample population migrated to Dhaka from different districts for higher studies are positively selective. Because female students responding primarily (360 answers) to plus factors of place of destination and only 176 answers behind the compelling factors of place of origin.

Problems:

Some specific problems were faced by the female student migrants-hich are given below:

1. Transportation problem at the time of their traveling faced by the female students who migrated from furthest areas/districts (i.e. Thakurgaon) to Dhaka City.
2. Residential problem: Accommodation problem is one of the acute problems faced by female students more severely, specially the female students at college residential hostels. A first year Hons./Pass residential student of a college cannot get a seat to accommodate. She might stay in hostel’s common room or dining room until a seat is available to her. Doubling problem is another problems faced by every female residential students in the firs/2^nd year. Food and dining problems are other severe problems. Besides, toilet and water supply facilities were insufficient as stated by the residential college students. Guest room problem faced commonly at the private hostels.
3. Most of the female were willing to stay in Dhaka after completing their higher studies. This is recorded to be common feature in spite of the female students more severely.

Remedies:

• Transportation facilities must be improved, that inspired to the female students and they are more migratory. Transportation problems must be solved to encourage female student migration for higher education.
• he accommodation problems could be solved by the institute authorities. Their positive attitude and effective role could solve this problem to a great extent.
• he residential problems after completing higher education can be solved by proper planning. Dormitory or hostel provisions for the Working Women may be largely extended by the government. Such facilities should be created in important cities and towns out side Dhaka. This would encourage female migration to different towns and at the same time relieve Dhaka from future accommodation problems.

A regional development of good facilities of higher education and job opportunities for women may reduce the migration flow and pressure on Dhaka city. This may also help in developing the respective regions and enhance the overall development of the nation.

The present research has been conducted through many constraints and limitations. But-nevertheless. Sincere efforts were made to reveal the real life situation in this regard. The author humbly feels that this just a modest beginning of the study at home in regard to female migration for higher education. The bench-ark situation has been carefully studied and some problems along with suggestions for their solution are presented.