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Viral eukaryogenesis is the theory that the cell nucleus of eukaryotic life forms evolved from a large DNA virus in an endosymbiotic relationship with a…

Paleovirology is a branch of science that studies ancient viruses and their interactions with hosts across evolutionary time scales. It is the study of extinct…

The integrated stress response is a cellular stress response conserved in eukaryotic cells that reduces protein synthesis while increasing the expression of specific genes in…

The cell membrane invaginates during pinocytosis, forming small vesicles that bring extracellular fluid and its dissolved solutes into the cell. Pinocytosis, also known as fluid…

Trans-endocytosis is the biological process by which material produced in one cell is endocytosed (enters) into another cell. If the material is large enough, this…

Phagocytosis is a critical cellular process that allows certain cells to engulf and consume solid particles such as bacteria, cellular debris, or other foreign particles.…

The placental microbiome refers to the nonpathogenic, commensal bacteria that are thought to be present in a healthy human placenta, as opposed to the bacteria…

The human virome is a collection of viruses that live in the human body. It refers to the total number of viruses found in and…

The human microbiome is a collection of trillions of microorganisms that live in various parts of the human body, including bacteria, viruses, fungi, and other…

The term “carbon bubble” refers to the idea that there is a risk of overvaluation of fossil fuel assets, which may experience a sharp decline…

Societal transformation refers to profound and long-term changes in a society’s structures, values, norms, and behaviors. It refers to “a deep and sustained, nonlinear systemic…

Nuclear proliferation is the spread of nuclear weapons and technology to other countries or non-state actors. It is the spread of nuclear weapons, fissionable material,…